Reluctant, Resistant but not Unteachable

Krogness, Mary Mercer. Just Teach Me; Mrs. K: Talking, Reading, and Writing with Resistant Adolescent Learners. Portsmouth, NH: Neinemann, 1995.

Anyone who’s spent any time in a classroom knows that students with behavioral disorders are a heterogeneous group who exhibit a wide range of classroom behaviors from disobedient to aggressive to painfully shy. Knowing how veteran teachers handle these situations, as well as established school policy for response, should be among our concerns as novice teachers. Author Mercer Krogness cautions that students who are chronically unruly need to be dealt with promptly and consistently, involving their parents, and when necessary, the appropriate school administrator (22). She advices that many kids with behavior problems have deep self-esteem and confidence problems. Many of these students are very bright and have the capability of performing well in class if managed with positive methods.

Krogness champions the community approach to classroom management and provides the following helpful tips in her book:

• Establish a classroom community, beginning with the first class, even if it takes longer than expected and you don’t delve into your subject for a couple days.
• Survey student interests
• Find out areas of student expertise and tap into those talents with classroom activities, assigned jobs, etc.
• Do many large-group activities to build relationships.
• Read to the class aloud and choose material that offers discussion on important feelings and emotions.
• Do oral activities together and invite kids to speak during every class.
• Listen to kids’ point of view.
• Ensure that all students have a voice and encourage them to extend and practice using that voice in free writes, class debates and creative activities.
• Establish class rules together and stick to them, but don’t overreact to minor infractions.
• Pick your battles.
• Establish your classroom as a safe place, no cheap shots.
• Keep a sense of humor and be flexible. Things will rarely go as planned.
• Take the lead from the students and notice the importance they attach to friends, family and activities. Build assignments that focus there.
• Be certain content is useful, relevant and clear.
• Do as much in-class work as possible, modeling the approaches and expected level of response.
• Let students choose from a variety of activities within a certain skill area.
• Model processes that students will need to accomplish an activity.
• Vary class activities as often as possible. Keep kids busy.
• Use texts that speak to adolescent experience. Let students choose some of their own reading and structure diverse ways for them to respond.
• Plan for pairs and small group work, especially in the afternoons or right after lunch.
• Provide immediate and clear feedback.
• Teach self-management skills (ex: notebooks, journals, records for writing workshop, etc.)

Many of these approaches are geared toward a holistic classroom, but they’re also good research-based approaches. Krogness reports that resistant students act more positively toward teachers who give them time to explore personal interests, teachers who read aloud to them, teachers who really listen and implement student ideas in the classroom, and teachers who vary classroom activities and teaching approaches (5-7). Students who fail to follow classroom rules are often students who struggle with establishing social relationships and recognizing this linkage can help teachers solve many behavioral problems. Reinforcing the idea of a classroom community can help misbehaving kids join the class and move forward—these students are “teachable” if we establish a community,

Dealing with Tardiness

Without a doubt, the most consistent behavior problem I have observed in local high schools is tardiness. While many schools do have school-wide tardy policies, many more do not, and many that are in place are ineffective. Tardiness not only effects the student who arrives late, but it can often set forth a dominoe effect for the classroom that day, causing the entire lesson to go awry. I researched some management ideas for dealing with tardiness on various education sites, but found about.com's ideas the most insightful and straightforward. Following are some of the methods that I discovered. As you think about your own tardy policy, reazlie that whatever you decide you'll have to also be able to enforce. A tardy policy without any follow through fromt the teacher's end will not reduce the tardy problem in your classroom.

Tardy Cards
Tardy Cards are basically cards given to each student with a space for a specific number of "free tardies". For example, a student might be allowed three per semester. When the student is late, the teacher marks off one of the spots. Once the tardy card is full, then you could follow your own discipline plan or the school's tardy policy (i.e., write a referral, send to detention, etc.). On the other hand, if the student gets through a semester without any tardies, then you could create a reward. For example, you might give this student a homework pass. While this system is most effective when implemented schoolwide, it can be effective for the individual teacher if strictly enforced.

On Time Quizzes
These are unannounced quizzes that take place as soon as the bell rings. Students who are tardy would receive a zero. They should be very short, typically one to five questions (i.e. sentence corrections for an English class or a single math problem, etc.). If you choose to use these, make sure that your administration allows this. You can choose to have the quizzes count as a single (continually accumulated) grade over the course of the semester or possibly as extra credit. However, make sure that you announce the system in the very beginning of the school year and that you start using them right away- be consistent. If you begin after the school year is well underway, students are more likely to see them as being used to specifically punish one or a few students. To be fair make sure that you randomly place them on your lesson plan calendar and give them on those days so that you don't intentionally or unintentionally single out a student or two who are regularly late to your class. You can increase the quantity if you find that tardies are becoming more of a problem over the year.

Detention for Tardy Students
This option makes logical sense - if a student is tardy then they owe you that time. This is the policy most often used by teachers at Bellingham High School. You would want to give your students a certain number of chances (1-3) before instituting this. However, there are some considerations here: Some students might have no transportation other than the school bus. Further, you do have an additional commitment on your part...you can't expect a student to stay in an empy room, so you'll have to remain at the school for the tardy detention as well. Finally, realize that some students who are tardy might be those who are not necessarily the best-behaved. You will be required to spend extra time with them after school.

Locking Students Out
This policy shocked me because it seems so extreme. But, I can imagine that if tardiness is a big problem for you, this would probably solve it pretty fast. I am not recommending this means for dealing with tardies, I'm just alerting you that it's an option that's out there. In this method, you literally lock your classroom door when the bell rings for class to begin. If students are late, they receive an absence for the day- no exceptions. You must consider your liability for student safety. If something happens to a student while locked out of your class, it would still be your responsibility. Since in many areas tardies do not excuse students from work, you will have to get them their make-up work which would in the end require more of your time.

From my own experience as a high schooler, I recall that teachers who did not deal with tardiness head on were always sorry by the end of the year because the problem would only escalate- we knew who's class we could be late to and we'd stretch out the appropriate tardiness collectively. My best advice is to talk with your fellow teachers and find out what works for them. Each school has a different atmosphere and what works with one group of students might not be as effective with another. Also, it seems that when teachers at a school can adopt a single tardiness policy and enforce it as a group, the policy will be much more effective. Try one of the listed methods or another method, but just remember that your tardy policy is only as effective as you are in enforcing it.

Proactive Tips for Behavior Management

Deal with misbehavior, quickly, consistently, and respectfully.

For the past several months, I’ve observed a freshman English class at Bellingham High School. When I’m not directing instruction, leading the class or working with small groups, I usually observe the lesson with one eye on the clock, timing activities and transitions, as well as noting method used for instruction. Until I began this journal, it never occurred to me to look for management techniques because the class is so well-behaved. But, once I took a closer look, I realized that much of the students’ good behavior can be attributed to proactive measures taken by the instructor to prevent management issues from becoming just that—issues in the first place.

Most of the behavior management techniques seem to fly under the radar of anyone in the classroom because the instructor follows this general policy: deal with misbehavior quickly, consistently and respectfully. In the paragraphs following, I have broken down what this policy looks like in the classroom…

Misbehavior is a disruption to the teacher’s effectiveness as an educator. The time spent dealing with misbehaving would be better spent teaching the more compliant kids. Therefore, misbehavior is dealt with quickly and consistently with class-defined consequences.

Non-verbal communication: Body language, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, and physical proximity can all be highly effective in promoting self-control by the student. It is important that a teacher is aware enough to recognize when misbehavior may occur, and to have non-verbal methods to prevent escalation. In one of our course readings, Kounin refers to this level of awareness as “withitness”. From my observations, “withitness” is the single most effective proactive behavior management skill a teacher can develop.

Reminders/Requests: It is possible that a verbal reminder of the classroom rules and consequences will be all that is necessary to stop student misbehavior. For example, when a student lays their head down on the desk, the teacher just reminds them, chin up or you’ll lose participation points. Sometimes the reminder is all that’s needed to keep the student from completely checking out.

Redirecting Behavior: Upon an act of misbehavior, a teacher may describe the action to the student and suggest an acceptable alternative action. The student usually only has to be reminded of what he or she is supposed to be doing. For example, “Instead of reading that newspaper, I would like you to work on your homework for the next five minutes. You can read the paper later.” This strategy goes along with using positive language and “start” messages rather than “stop” requests or questions that are inappropriate (i.e. stop reading the paper OR can you stop reading the paper?).

Dealing with attention-seeking students: If a teacher ignores an attention seeking student, the misbehavior usually escalates to a level which eventually cannot be ignored. Therefore, it is best if the teacher can redirect the student’s behavior, and attempt to give the student attention when he or she is not demanding it. This method encourages students to seek motivation from within, instead of depending on attention from without. For example, there is a young man who consistently talks out of turn. The instructor often directs questions toward him when she is checking to see if students understood her directions or lecture information. This not only gives him the opportunity to talk, but it puts his input to good use, providing reminders for the rest of the class.

Avoid Power Struggles: It is important that the authority figure in the classroom not engage in power struggles with students. It is best to redirect a power-seeking student’s behavior by offering some position of responsibility or decision making. Cushman suggests offering the student two choices. For example, if a student does not want to participate in an activity, you can provide them with the choice to participate now, or silent read and lose participation points, then walk away.

Address the behavior, not the character of the student: The teacher has the power to build or destroy student self-concept and personal relationships. Good communication addresses the situation directly, letting the student decide whether their behavior is consistent with what they expect of themselves. When a student is acting inappropriately, best to pull them aside and simply ask if they think their behavior is appropriate and why or why not. The student will generally own up to what they were doing wrong. Never humiliate a student in front of the class (we saw an example of that in Michie).

Invoking Consequences: To be effective, consequences must be applied consistently. They should never be harmful physically or psychologically to the student. When they are invoked, the student should understand that he or she has chosen them by misbehaving. Cushman suggests that consequences should fit the misbehavior. So, if a student is tardy and your policy is for the student to stay late after class, be consistent and ask the student to wait for an equal amount of time that they were late in arriving.

Prevent Escalation: Sometimes students are unwilling to listen to the teacher. At this point, a teacher can help prevent misbehavior from escalating by talking (and listening) with the student privately, and rationally discuss the problem behavior. The privacy enhances the possibility for a constructive discussion. Confrontation with an unwilling student could make the teacher appear weak in front of the class. Some kids just thrive off the attention, especially when it’s warranted by other kids. Removing the audience will often times deflate the student’s anger or irritability.

Briefly Annotated References for Classroom Management

Allen, S. A Study to Determine the Effectiveness of a Positive Approach to Discipline System for Classroom Management. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Los Angeles, CA, April 1981. (ED 203 490).

Investigates the effect of a Positive Approach to Discipline on teacher behavior and student outcomes in twelve seventh grade, ethnically diverse classes. The use of PAD brought about a reduction in administrative referrals and suspensions, but the incidence of corporal punishment remained the same.

Anderson, L. M., and Prawat, R. S. "Responsibility in the Classroom: A Synthesis of Research on Teaching Self-Control." Educational Leadership 40/7 (1983): 62- 66.

Reviews research on the effectiveness of methods for teaching self-control to students and thereby increase time-on-task and classroom order.

Atkeson, B. M., and Forehand, R. "Home-Based Reinforcement Programs Designed to Modify Classroom Behavior: A Review and Methodological Evaluation." Psychological Bulletin 86/6 (1979): 1298-1308.

Reviews 19 studies on the effects of home-based reinforcement programs on the social and academic behavior of students at all age/grade levels. Found these programs to be effective in increasing on-task behavior and reducing the incidence of classroom disruption.

Bowman, R., Jr. "Effective Classroom Management: A Primer for Practicing Professionals." Clearing House 57/3 (1983): 116-118.

Summarizes research on effective classroom management methods. Findings are congruent with those identified by major classroom management researchers.

Brophy, J. "Classroom Management Techniques." Education and Urban Society 18/2 (1986): 182-194.

Summarizes research on classroom management methods and reviews research on interventions for dealing with misbehavior.

Brophy, J. E. "Classroom Organization and Management." The Elementary School Journal 83/4 (1983): 265-285.

Reviews research and discusses findings concerning classroom management strategies found to be effective in reducing misbehavior and promoting time-on-task. Discusses both preventive and intervention strategies.

Center on Evaluation, Development and Research.htmlPhi Delta Kappa. Effective Classroom Management. 1984-85 Hot Topic Series. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa, 1985.

Presents a compilation of articles on classroom management, featuring sections on research and practical applications of research.


Cotton, K. Instructional Reinforcement. Close-Up No. 3. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1988.

Reviews 37 studies and analyses of the effects of different kinds of instructional reinforcement (e.g., praise, tokens, privileges, etc.) on student achievement and behavior.

Cotton, K., and Savard, W. G. Student Discipline and Motivation: Research Synthesis. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1982. (ED 224 170)

Reviews 26 studies and summaries on the effects of classroom and schoolwide practices undertaken to reduce discipline problems and increase student motivation.

Doyle, W. "Classroom Management Techniques." In Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior, edited by Oliver C. Moles. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1989, 11-31. (ED 311 608)

Reviews research on effective classroom management techniques and strategies for dealing with serious or chronic misconduct. Identifies clear and consistently applied rules and close monitoring of classroom activities as critical classroom management functions.

Duke, D. L. "School Organization, Leadership, and Student Behavior." In Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior, edited by Oliver C. Moles. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1989, 31-62. (ED 311 608)

Reviews research on the school organizational factors related to well-disciplined school environments and discusses the kinds of leadership functions needed to establish environments conducive to good school discipline.

Emmer, E. T., and Aussiker, A. "School and Classroom Discipline Programs: How Well Do They Work?" In Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior, edited by Oliver C. Moles. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1989, 105-142. (ED 311 608)

Reviews research on the effects of Teacher Effectiveness Training, Reality Therapy, Assertive Discipline, and Adlerian approaches on school and classroom discipline. Identified positive effects on teacher perceptions and some effects on teacher behavior, but few effects on student behavior or attitudes.

Emmer, E. T., and Evertson, C. M. "Synthesis of Research on Classroom Management." Educational Leadership 38/4 (1981): 342-347.

Summarizes research studies on the relationship between teachers' classroom management behaviors and student behavioral outcomes. Identifies teachers' beginning-of-the-year behaviors as particularly important in establishing and maintaining classroom order.

Emmer, E. T.; Sanford, J. P.; Clements, B. S.; and Martin, J. Improving Junior High Classroom Management. Austin, TX: Research and Development Center for Teacher Education, 1983. (ED 261 053)

Examines the effects of a training program in classroom management skills on teachers with fewer than two years of experience. Experimental teachers showed a greater command of target skills than controls, and their students were more on task and less disruptive.

Evertson, C. M. "Training Teachers in Classroom Management: An Experimental Study in Secondary School Classrooms." Journal of Educational Research 79/1 (1985): 51-58.

Undertakes to validate principles of classroom organization and management, determine if school district personnel could successfully implement classroom management workshops, and assess whether classroom management training could increase the skills of secondary teachers who had already received instructional skills training.

Fitzpatrick, K. A., and McGreal, T. L. "The Effect of Training in Classroom Management on Academic Engaged Time in Secondary Classrooms." Illinois School Research and Development 20/1 (1983): 20-32.

Reports the results of a study of the effects of training high school teachers in classroom management skills. Training content was congruent with general research on classroom management. Experimental teachers practiced effective behaviors more, and their students engaged in more on-task behavior and less disruption.

Gettinger, M. "Methods of Proactive Classroom Management." School Psychology Review 17/2 (1988): 227-242.

Reviews research on the effects of proactive classroom management techniques--methods which focus on prevention rather than remediation of student misbehavior.

Gottfredson, D. C. "Developing Effective Organizations to Reduce School Disorder." In Strategies to Reduce Student Misbehavior, edited by Oliver C. Moles. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1989, 87-104. (ED 311 698)

Cites research findings on the correlates of school disorder, reports the results of an organizational improvement study in two urban junior high schools, and presents results of three projects intended to reduce the disruptions and delinquent behavior perpetrated by at-risk youth.

Gottfredson, D. C. "An Empirical Test of School-Based Environmental and Individual Interventions to Reduce the Risk of Delinquent Behavior." Criminology 24/4 (1986): 705-731.

Reports the results of a project intended to improve school discipline and reduce the dropout rate in four low-income middle and high schools. Improvements were noted among the general school populations and specific targeted, high-risk students.

Gottfredson, D. C. "An Evaluation of an Organization Development Approach to Reducing School Disorder." Evaluation Review 11/6 (1987): 739-763.

Describes a study in which an urban junior high school made use of various organization development activities, including schoolwide use of Assertive Discipline and Reality Therapy, and experienced significantly greater improvements in school discipline than a demographically similar control school.

Gottfredson, D. G.; Karweit, N. L.; and Gottfredson, G. D. Reducing Disorderly Behavior in Middle Schools. Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on Elementary and Middle Schools, Johns Hopkins University, April 1989.

Describes the results of an organization development approach to reducing disorder in six urban middle schools. High-implementation schools evidenced significant improvements, while low-implementation and control schools did not.

Gottfredson, G. D., and Gottfredson, D. C. Victimization in Schools. New York: Plenum Press, 1985.

Uses survey data from the National Institute of Education's Safe School Study to determine school factors which are related to the victimization of school personnel and students in junior and senior high school settings.

Greenwood, C. R.; Carta, J. J.; and Hall, R. V. "The Use of Peer Tutoring Strategies in Classroom Management and Educational Instruction." School Psychology Review 17/2 (1988): 258-275.

Identifies various peer tutoring strategies, provides detail on their elements, cites research on their effectiveness in promoting student learning and behavior, and notes limitations in the current research base and areas of need for future research.

Hyman, I. A., and Lally, D. "A Study of Staff Development Programs for Improving School Discipline." The Urban Review 14/3 (1982): 181-196.

Reviews research on the efficacy of various approaches to improve school climate and discipline (Adlerian, behavior modification, human relations training, reality therapy, etc.) and examines studies to identify commonalities across the different approaches.

Kounin, J. S. Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1970.

Presents the results of studies from the kindergarten to university levels, focusing particularly on findings from an observational study of 80 elementary classrooms to identify strategies and processes used in effectively and ineffectively managed classes.

Lasley, T. J., and Wayson, W. W. "Characteristics of Schools with Good Discipline." Educational Leadership 40/3 (1982): 28-31.

Reviews the work of the Phi Delta Kappa Commission on Discipline and other sources to identify the elements which correlate with good school discipline. Broadbased problem solving, providing opportunities for success, and strong leadership are among the elements commonly found in well-disciplined schools.

Leach, D. J., and Byrne, M. K. "Some ‘Spill-over' Effects of a Home-based Reinforcement Programme in a Secondary School." Educational Psychology 6/3 (1986): 265-276.

Investigates the effects of a home-based reinforcement program on the classroom behavior of disruptive adolescents and their peers. Target students were more on task and less disruptive after the intervention; some classmates were positively affected and some were not.

Lovegrove, M.; Lewis, R.; Fall, C.; and Lovegrove, H. Students' Preferences for Discipline Practices in Schools. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Australian Comparative and International Education Society, Hamilton, New Zealand, August 1983. (ED 265 257)

Reviews research on student attitudes toward various classroom disciplinary practices. Ninth graders in Australia, the United States, and Norway participated and generally had the same preferences regarding teachers' disciplinary practices.

Luke, M. D. "Research on Class Management and Organization: Review with Implications for Current Practice." Quest 41 (1989): 55-67.

Reviews research on class management and organization as it applied to physical education. Findings are similar to those obtained in other classroom management reviews.

McCormack, S. Assertive Discipline: What Do We Really Know? San Diego, CA: San Diego County Office of Education, 1987. (ED 286 618).

Reviews eleven research studies on the effects of the Assertive Discipline program on teachers and students. Identified positive relationships between the program and (1) off-task behavior, (2) incidence of referrals, (3) student self-concept.

McNamara, E.; Harrop, A.; and Owen, F. "The Effect of Group Orientated Classroom Management Procedures on Individual Pupils." Educational Psychology 7/3 (1987): 157-168.

Examines the effect of teacher training in classroom management techniques on the behavior of adolescent students. After the intervention, positive teacher comments and actions increased, negative ones decreased, and student task behavior improved.

Miller, D. "Effect of a Program of Therapeutic Discipline on the Attitude, Attendance, and Insight of Truant Adolescents." Journal of Experimental Education 55/1 (1986): 49-53.

Reports the results of a study in which a therapeutic discipline program was compared with traditional, nontherapeutic discipline in terms of their effects on secondary students experiencing in-school suspension for truancy. Treatment students had better attendance and greater insight, but controls had better attitudes toward school attendance.

Ornstein, A. C., and Levine, D. U. "Teacher Behavior Research: Overview and Outlook." Phi Delta Kappan 62/8 (1981): 592-596.

Reviews research on theories and practices associated with effective teaching. Includes a section on the kinds of classroom management practices shown to be associated with orderly, on-task classroom environments.

Pestello, F. G. "Misbehavior in High School Classrooms." Youth and Society 20/3 (1989): 290-306.

Examines the relationship among student perceptions of different punishments, their perceptions of classroom climate, teachers' perceptions of punishment, and student demographic characteristics. Students and teachers in fourteen American History classes participated.

Sanford, J. P., and Evertson, C. M. "Classroom Management in a Low SES Junior High: Three Case Studies." Journal of Teacher Education 32/1 (1981): 34-38.

Presents findings from a study of classroom management involving three teachers in a low-SES school setting. Differences were noted between the practices of an effective, a less effective, and an ineffective manager as measured by student social behavior and attitudes.

Sharpley, C. F., and Sharpley, A. M. "Contingent vs. Noncontingent Rewards in the Classroom: A Review of the Literature." Journal of School Psychology 19/3 (1981): 250-259.

Reviews research on the comparative effectiveness of contingent and noncontingent reinforcement on the behavior of students in classroom settings. Contingent reinforcement was found to be considerably more effective.

Short, P. M. "Effectively Disciplined Schools: Three Themes From Research." NASSP Bulletin 72/504 (1988): 1-3.

Summarizes findings from research on schoolwide practices which lead to safe and orderly school environments. Schoolwide involvement in establishing good discipline, positive school climate, and principal leadership are the three "themes" identified.

Slee, R. "Integration: The Disruptive Student and Suspension." The Urban Review 18/2 (1986): 87-103.

Reviews British, Australian, New Zealand, and American research on the use of in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, and suspension to off-site centers. Finds these approaches ineffective and calls for organizational improvements in schools so that disruptive students might be retained.

Smedley, S. R., and Willower, D. J. "Principals' Pupil Control Behavior and School Robustness." Educational Administration Quarterly 17/4 (1981): 40-56.

Investigates the relationship between students' perceptions of the methods principals use to control student behavior and their perceptions of school robustness. Perceptions of humanistic approaches on the part of principals were associated with greater robustness.

Stallings, J. A., and Mohlman, G. C. School Policy, Leadership Style, Teacher Changes, and Student Behavior in Eight Schools. Mountain View, CA: Stallings Teaching and Learning Institute, 1981. (ED 209 759)

Reviews research on the school and classroom correlates of effective discipline and presents findings from a study of eight schools to determine (1) the correlates of school order and (2) the effects of a teacher training program.

Strother, D. B. "Practical Applications of Research." Phi Delta Kappan 66/10 (1985): 725-728.

Reviews research on classroom management techniques and offers research-based guidelines for teachers to use to increase their classroom management skills.

Wayson, W. W.; DeVoss, G. G.; Kaeser, S. C.; Lasley, T.; Pinnell, G. S.; and the Phi Delta Kappa Commission on Discipline. Handbook for Developing Schools with Good Discipline. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa, 1982.

Identifies findings from research on well-disciplined schools and offers suggestions for improving school discipline, including sample goals, activities, assessment techniques, and possible first steps.

Wayson, W. W., and Lasley, T. J. "Climates for Excellence: Schools That Foster Self-Discipline." Phi Delta Kappan 65/6 (1984): 419-421.

Presents findings from a study conducted by the PDK Commission on Discipline. Identifies five characteristics present in schools with welldisciplined students: belongingness/responsibility, shared goals, symbols of identity and excellence, leadership to sustain positive values, and clear formal and informal rules.

Weber, W. A.; Crawford, J.; Roff, L. A.; and Robinson, C. Classroom Management: Reviews of the Teacher Education and Research Literature. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1983.

Reviews research on classroom management and identifies findings regarding maximizing time-on-task and on preventing and remediating classroom disruptions.

Workman, E. A., and Williams, R. L. "Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom." Journal of School Psychology 18/2 (1980): 141-147.

Reviews research on the effects of extrinsic rewards- -particularly the combination of praise and tokens--on the intrinsic motivation of regular and special education students. Found that extrinsic rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation and, in some cases, enhance it.

Phoning Home in High School

Stone, Randi. Best Practices for High School Classrooms: What award-winning secondary teachers do. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc, 2002. 8-10.

In an article published in Stone’s Best Practices for High School Classrooms book, secondary teacher Carey Jenkins from Paterson, New Jersey writes about her experience with teaching in an inner-city environment in a low socio-economic part of town. In a classroom flooded with Latino and African American students with poor working-class parents, classroom management was a daily issue. “I will talk about discipline because it is the biggest problem facing inner-city classroom teachers. The average teacher cannot control an inner-city class for several reasons: The teacher is afraid of the students and afraid of the parents of the students. In addition, teachers will say they do not have the support of their administrators or that their administrators will not ‘back them up’ when they attempt to discipline a child” (Stone 8). Jenkins acknowledges that discipline problems are often school, district, community and city-wide, so many teachers have little to no help in managing their immediate classroom. I like what Jenkins says in response to this problem—that yes, discipline problems exist everywhere, and they’re often much larger than the immediate classroom issue—but that teachers need to discipline their students in order for learning to take place. An out of control classroom does no good, and if we view the classroom as a microcosm for society at large, setting rules and enforcing them is an important part of what we do as teachers. So, how to do?

At the heart of every discipline problem, suggests Jenkins, is an issue of respect (or disrespect). Many teachers, especially at inner-city schools, do not respect their students. This is reflected by school codes and guidelines, the tracking systems, the weak curricula and the short career length of teachers at such schools. “The students are very much aware of this lack of respect, and they show it” (Stone 8). Jenkins suggests that if students were regarded with higher respect, discipline problems diminish. Her policy for discipline is “A child who did not follow the rules in my class had to leave class for that period and could not come back without his or her parents” (Stone 9). Jenkins realized that most of the parents of her students had jobs, other children and responsibilities and could not afford to visit the school to deal with their child’s behavior problem. As a result of this policy, Jenkins found that parents would force their students to behave so they wouldn’t have to leave their jobs, kids, etc. Jenkins refers to her policy as parental involvement and claims that “it works every time” (Stone 10).

The strategy seems practical from a teacher’s standpoint—it removes the responsibility of enforcing consequences for misbehavior out of the classroom entirely by placing it in the hands of the parent or guardian. However, I find it interesting that Jenkins explains her discipline policy within the framework of respect. I can imagine some students may view a parent call from a teacher as a sign of disrespect, suggesting that the student is not adult-enough to be reasoned with. Further, I can only imagine the hardship and inconvenience this policy placed on the families of these students; Ms. Jenkins certainly could not have been the neighborhood favorite teacher. Lastly, I have often heard that repercussions for misbehavior should be related directly to the infraction. For example, if a student defaces school property, they should serve time cleaning up the school grounds and removing graffiti from school walls. So, if every time a student in Ms. Jenkin’s class misbehaves, their parent is called and they receive (possible) punishment at home, I wonder what connection the student makes between the action and the consequence.

I suppose it all comes down to teaching philosophy. I envision my classroom as one where I treat my students like adults and peers, acting toward them as I would expect them to act toward me. I certainly wouldn’t want my students to call my mom if I gave a poor lesson or had an off day. I find value in giving students the benefit of the doubt. Just as Jenkins admits in her article, discipline problems are so rarely about the classroom in the first place. Wouldn’t the time spent calling and explaining the situation to the parent be better spent talking with the student, finding out what’s really going on and helping them to work through it?

Acknowledge Every Student

Does this classroom door look welcoming?

Research shows that you're supposed to watch out for "the invisible student" each day. The invisible student is the quiet smart kid in the back, the ELL student, the shy female in a male-dominated class, etc. You know who they are. There's always a few in each class and it's often an uphill battle each day to get them to participate (actively and audibly) in the class. Usually, if you're successful, it's an immensely rewarding experience because these kids are often incredibly insightful--their quietness is a way of taking it all in (and they are!). We all know the tips for including such students: circulate throughout the classroom, draw names randomly for responses, offer students opportunities to write or share their ideas in small groups before contributing to the class, etc. Recently, I observed a teacher practice a new tip for acknowledging the invisible student. Each day, as the twominute warning bell rings and students begin to scurry to class at BHS, she stands outside her classroom door and personally greets each student as they enter the classroom. She greets each one by name, interjects a positive comment or observation, asks about their weekends or lunch breaks and welcomes them into the classroom. While a seemingly small step, this teacher's simple action sets a positive tone for the day and invites each individual into the classroom space. A simple tip, but a valuable one at that!

Teacher Awareness of Effective Management Strategies

Article Citation: Roman, D. (2007). Teaching Strategies Used to Maintain Classroom Order. Marygrove College, Masters Dissertation.

Site Link: ERIC Document
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/3a/e6/4a.pdf

A Brief Summary
This action research report examines the question: How does identifying and understanding teaching strategies influence how teachers maintain classroom management? Beginning with a literature review, Roman discusses the five most commonly known discipline or management strategies which included coercive, task-oriented, laissez-faire, authoritative, and intrinsic. The major focus of the research project was to find out what works according to practicing teachers. Toward this end, the researchers provided 15 teachers from local high schools (all with at least 150 students per day) with a questionnaire regarding the use of specific teaching strategies used to control classroom behavior. The results of the survey indicated that (overwhelmingly) the practicing teachers agreed that more than one behavior management technique is required in order to maintain a smooth-functioning classroom. All respondents disagreed with coercive and laissez-faire as an effective strategy for classroom management and the majority of teachers surveyed admitted that traditional authoritative strategies are most effective.

Reaction
Most teachers would agree that the ultimate role of the teacher is to provide the necessary support to ensure that students become life-long learners. In today’s increasingly culturally diverse and pluralistic classrooms, teachers need to realize that each of their students comes from a unique family with unique values, socioeconomic statuses and child-rearing philosophies. Thus, as the study rightly concludes, an appropriate learning environment can only be maintained by effective classroom management strategies. I agree with Roman that teachers should understand the strategies they use to maintain classroom order. More so, I believe strongly that teachers should actively reflect and critically examine their approaches to classroom management. Because classrooms are dynamic environments filled with kids who have real and varied personalities, interests and agendas, there is no prescription or step-by-step process for establishing and maintaining classroom order. As the teachers surveyed in this study indicated, different techniques work on different days, but the key is understanding why certain management styles are important and/or effective. This research study reminded me that understanding and improving management styles is a worthy goal, which benefits not only the learners but teachers as well. Thanks to this research contribution, in my own effort to produce practical classroom management tips and ideas on this blog, I will consciously strive to explain the reasoning behind the tips, link to research where I can and discuss strategies with teachers in the field to provide a set of strategies that teachers can not only use to improve their classroom functioning, but truly understand in an effort to improve their pedagogy.